As already mentioned, Nennius recorded 12 battles of Arthur. Unfortunately, Nennius is also an unreliable source. But, as John Bruce matches two battles near Drumchapel:- namely in Duntocher and Strathblane; and Gildas confirms the battle of Badon Hill, it may prove a fruitful exercise to match the locations and confirm the battles and their sites.
Nennius only recorded Arthur's victories. Arthur's last battle then - his defeat at Camlann, where he "perished"- must therefore be his 13th. The count of 13 seems a little high for battles fought; some of Nennius's battles may not have taken place or fought by Arthur. But each battle must be viewed in turn.
First, I will list details of the twelve battles according to Nennius taken from the Historia Brittonum. Then I will attempt to identify the locations of battles from the text. Finally, I will attempt to identify any pattern of the battles.
Nennius's twelve battles
The first battle is at the mouth of the River Glein. This traditionally suggests two candidates: the River Glen in Lincolnshire and the River Glen in Northumberland (near Flodden). With its many fens and swamps, Lincolnshire seems an unlikely place for Arthur's battles. There is evidence from the Gododdin poem that the British used horses in battle as cavalry, ineffective in such terrain. Northumberland seems a better option: the Angles had colonised the area in the 6th Century, making the area of Bamburgh Castle a seat of their power. That Arthur may have decided to fight in their heartland to check their progress into Scotland is tactically sound, if not a little foolhardy. There is a question mark as to whether this battle is actually that of Arthur's; there was a historical battle recorded in this area in 632 AD when Yeavering, King Edwin's palace on the River Glen was burnt down by Penda of Mercia and Cadwallon of Wales. It is perhaps this battle that Nennius has mistakenly attributed to Arthur. An alternative site for the battle, that of Glen Water in Ayrshire at Darvel is probably the best candidate but the location suggests that the battle was an internal power struggle and not a battle against Picts or Angles. Local legend claims it as a battle of Arthur's even giving the date as 542 AD. Nennius claims this as the first battle, but as the last battle (Camlann) is probably before 542 AD, the date must be before that of Badon Hill (516) and around the time of Bassas.
Note then, the location of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th battles. The river Dubglas in the region of the Linnuis. Some have attempted to place these battles in Lincoln, known then as the Roman Lindum. Dubglas is simply gaelic for Douglas, or literally Blackwater. There are no rivers known as Blackwater in Lincolnshire. The simplest and best explanation would be the river Douglas at Loch Lomond near Inverbeg. This falls into the ancient province of Lennox. Indeed, the 2nd Century geographer Ptolemy recorded the name Lindum with the Roman fort of Drumquhassle in the Lennox province. The Lennox would be a natural place for battles with Picts encroaching on the British territory of Strathclyde from the North; as it was in 750 AD with the Battle of Mugdock. The area of Lennox also confirms Bruce's suggestion of Duntocher and Strathblane as battle sites. Further analysis of his suggestion can be found in a summary of the people of the Dark Age. Skene's Celtic Scotland similarly concludes the Lennox: "This was certainly one of the districts about the wall called 'Guaul' which had been occupied by Octa's colony; and Nennius tells us elsewhere that Severus' Wall [Antonine Wall], which passed by Cairpentaloch to the mouth of the river Clyde, was called in the British speech 'Guaul'. " Ben Arthur - also known as The Cobbler - is in Loch Lomondside.
The sixth battle on the River Bassas has always proved difficult to locate. One plausible identification has been Baschurch in Shropshire; concluded by the similarity of the river and Bassa (meaning 'the churches of'). Skene suggests the River Bonny at Dunipace, as the p may have previously been a b, and the name Bass is given to a mound in Scotland, of which there are two at Dunipace. Glennie is not convinced by the location of Dunipace and suggests Roughmute, at the junction of the Rivers Bonny and Carron as the correct siting of the river-battle. The Lothian coast near the Bass rock has also been suggested. I would dispute this claim as the geography of river-battles in the fifth and sixth centuries led to defence at river-crossings and fords, not on the coastline. I would suggest that a better candidate than all of these is Cambuslang, in the south of Glasgow. The name may mean long [lang] crooked [cam] river-mouth [bus]. The river Calder runs through the town, but the mouth of the Calder is not there but at the River Clyde. Perhaps the Calder was once known as the Bassas; giving Cambassas, and in derivation Cambuslang. Using this method, other places have a similar claim e.g. Cambus in Fife; Cambuskenneth in Stirlingshire. John Matthews and Bob Stewart in Warriors of Arthur note a slightly different etmylogy for Cambuslang: "Cambuslang is derived from 'camus long' - the bight of ships - so it is not unreasonable to suppose that this battle might have been a sea-going engagement, perhaps even against Hueil, who is often referred to as a pirate." Cambuslang, however, has a better claim than just linguistic method. There was a battle here as Arthur, concerned with Caw's sons growing power and victories in the area, killed the royal youths. Matthews and Stewart conclude the placement of Cambuslang as Arthur's sixth battle:- "According to various genealogies Gildas was Caw's son, while his sister Cwyllog, was married to Medrawd, Arthur's nephew/son and his greatest enemy. The story is told that Arthur slew Caw in battle and that this was the reason why there is no mention of him in Gildas' history of the period. Another son, Hueil, kept up a feud or galanas with Arthur until he also fell to the Dux's sword." Hueil's battle can be dated to c.508 AD. It seems likely then that this was an internal power struggle for the kingdom rather than a battle between Picts or Angles; and that this was the battle on the River Bassas. Caw is reputed to be buried here, so perhaps when he died he requested to be buried near his sons. The death of Caw must have been sometime after the birth of Gildas in 516. Gildas, supposedly a son of Caw, visited the site with St. Cadoc. The killing of his older brothers explains his hatred of Arthur. More on this battle can be found in the entry on the placing of the ancient Welsh poetry.
The seventh battle is in the Caledonian Forest. Geoffrey of Monmouth indicates that this battle takes place in a wood north of Lincoln! If there are any doubts to the Caledonian Forest actually being the modern Caledonian Forest of Scotland, I would refer doubters to Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland by Marjorie Anderson. She relates the names of seven Pictish regions:- Fortriu, Fothreue, Circhenn, Fotla, Ce, Fidach and Catt. The latter confirms the Cat part of Cat Coit Celidon. The region of Catt is suggested to lie north of the River Dee, probably Moray and Rossshire. An often sited alternative to this is the Scottish borders, around the ancient Ettrick or Selkirk forests. Yet they were dislocated from the modern Caledonian forest probably before the Roman invasion of Scotland, leaving the interpretation of these southern forests as Celidon (Caledonian) as suspect. T.C. Smout in his Nature Contested: Envirnomental History in Scotland and northern England since 1600 notes the Caledonian forest stretching the length of Scotland was many years before:- "Yes, there was a time at about 3000 BC when Scotland, like Ireland, was covered with forest, barring only the mountain tops, the marshes and the standing water, though it was not all (or even predominantly) a forest of the blue-green canopied Caledonian pine." He later adds "On fertile ground, especially in the Lowlands, much of the surviving broadleaf wood was felled and cleared by Celtic tribes in the first millenium before Christ, if not before." and notes that the Roman geographers located the Celidon forest in the Scottish Highlands, somewhere beyond their limit of influence in the Scottish lowlands:-"Pliny in AD 43 remarked that the Roman army had not penetrated beyond the Caledonian forest, but does not say where it was: it seems to have been like Ultima Thule, not a real place but 'somewhere up there'. Ptolemy in the next century records that the Caledonian forest was 'beyond' (or possibly 'west of') the Caledonii, a tribe whom they had just encountered in an area north of the Forth: so it was still somewhere beyond the known horizon." This siting of the Caledonian forest includes the region of Catt already suggested. The ancient Welsh poem of Arthur and Cai supports the idea of Arthur fighting Picts from Catt and will be discussed later.
The eighth battle in Guinnon fort is the most difficult of Nennius' battles to locate. Interpretations range from Land's End [Caer Guidn] to the Isle of Wight [Gwyn in Welsh]. Geoffrey of Monmouth identifies the site as Winchester, the site of a pre-Camlann battle between Arthur and Mordred. Of all the theories, I have been convinced by only two. One explanation suggests Binchester in Durham as a likely contender. This fort was known by the Romans as Vinovium, similar to the word Guinnon. This would make sense as the fort would be a Angle stronghold. As of the Battle of the River Glen, this would seem a foolhardy approach, and would be the only battle of a hill-fort where Arthur was attacking, and not defending. The other theory is based on that of Norma Goodrich. She states that Guintonia is an alternative name for Holyrood in Edinburgh. As stated in the synopsis of the eleventh battle, Arthur's Seat is a suitable candidate for one of Arthur's battles. If this was correct, it would suggest that Agned Hill would be Traprain Law.
The ninth battle at the City of the Legion is probably corrected sited at Chester. Chester was known as Caer Legion; although Caerleon, known as Caer Legion guar Uisc (Caerleon-upon-Usk) may also be a candidate. In favour of Chester, however, is the Annales Cambriae which records Chester as Urbs Legionis, the City of the Legion. However, this battle is probably incorrectly ascribed to Arthur by Nennius. The Battle of Chester occurred in 613 AD when King Iago and his son Cadfan of Gwynedd fought against King Aethelfrith of Bernica, when Iago gave protection to King Edwin of Deira, the main threat to Aethelfrith's throne. At such a late date, Arthur would not have been involved in this battle. Skene however thinks that Nennius meant Dumbarton as indicated by the 'Memorabilia' of Nennius: the first being 'Stagnum Lumonoy' or Loch Lomond, whose main river, the Leven flows into Dumbarton. Geoffrey of Monmouth also locates a battle here, giving Skene a dubious backing. McHardy suggests Camelon; Moffat suggests York. This battlesite is still hotly contended but I see no obvious reason why Chester is still not the favourite, and incorrectly ascribed by Nennius.
The tenth battle is on the river Tribruit. One interpretation (by O.G.S. Crawford) puts this as the River Frew in Stirling. He asserts this as a three river system flowing into an estuary, and that the Frew was once known as Bruit :- "traeth" is Welsh for tidal estuary; "tri" meaning three; and "brit" or "brute" meaning rushing river. Backing this interpretation is Pa Gur, an 11th Century Welsh poem, which mentions Tryrfwyd; placing it near the River Forth. The verse, from the Black Book of Carmarthen, is translated:
Manawyd brought home
A pierced shield from Tryfrwyd....
By the hundreds they fell
To Bedwyrís four-pronged spear,
On the shores of Tryfrwyd
Manawyd can be identified as Mannan (modern Stirlingshire and the central belt; hence the towns Clackmannan and Slamannan). Bedwyris is translated to Bedivere in Arthurian legend. Welsh was the common language of the whole area in the 6th Century. As usual, other sites are suggested by some historians including the River Severn in Wales and the River Eden in Carlisle; but the River Frew is the generally accepted site. Tom Begg's The Kingdom of Kippen notes that the River Frew was a site of strategic military importance: "With a good local guide and favourable weather the fords there provided wanderers, missionaries, adventurous travellers, raiders or invading armies with a means of crossing which avoided and bypassed Stirling. How important the 'famous Fords of Frew' were considered to be is indicated by the fact that they were noted among the Seven Wonders of ancient Scotland."
The eleventh battle is on Agned Hill. As usual, various possibilities have been suggested: Knoll in Somerset; Ribchester in Lancashire and Cirenchester in Gloucestershire. Geoffrey of Monmouth identifies Monte Agned as Edinburgh. As we have seen, almost invariably he is found incorrect. However, Edinburgh has other arguments for its location. The Gododdin were based at Traprain Law, just south of Edinburgh. Perhaps Arthur was called to defend the hill-fort from the Angles from the south or the Picts from the north. Edinburgh also has Arthur's Seat, another hill-fort at Holyrood. Both seem suitable candidates, so perhaps Geoffrey of Monmouth is actually right in this case. Certainly, Edinburgh is the standard location; even used by those historians placing some other battles in Wales, the West Country and Lincolnshire. In Arthur and the Britons in Wales and Scotland Skene seals Edinburgh's claim noting: "Nennius calls the people whom Arthur defeated at Mynyd Agned, or Edinburgh, 'Cath Bregion' ,and the 'Brithwyr' are frequently mentioned in the ancient poems. The words which form the root of these epithets are, Brith, forming in the feminine Braith, meaning mottled or dappled, and Brych - the equivalent in Cymric of the Gaelic Breac - spotted. Both refer to the name Picti, or painted; and Agned or Mynyd Agned probably comes from an obsolete word, 'agneaw' to paint, 'agneaid' painted. Hence it is Skene's assertion that this battle was fought against the Picts.
And so to the last battle on Nennius' list, Badon Hill. Gildas called the Battle of Badon Hill a siege, and thus the hill must have been fortified. This was Arthur's last victory against the 'Saxons'. There is a Badon Hill in Linlithgow, and a central eastern location is consistent with 'Saxon' advance in Scotland. It is also close to the Antonine wall's military way which must have been the main arterial route of the region and no doubt vital to Arthur and movement of his troops.Also, remember that Gildas was born in Ail Cluathe (Dumbarton), the capital of Strathclyde - Arthur's victories would be essential to the British Kingdom's survival. Thomas Reid, in his book History of the parish of Crawfordjohn confirms this theory. The battle is suggested to take place near the River Avon -Avon just means river in old Welsh- and that has lead some English and Welsh historians, following the erroneous lead of Geoffrey of Monmouth, to suggest Bath or other similar locations as the battle site - no doubt oblivious to the River Avon that runs through Linlithgow. Recent maps may refer to the hill as Bowden Hill, a standard anglication of the traditional British pronunication still current in Strathclyde today, the ow sound becoming an a. Hence elbow is pronounced elba or Glasgow pronounced Glesga. Gildas, a native of Strathclyde, refers to the hill as Badon, as many older maps testify. Gildas states that the battle was in the year of his birth, around 516 AD - an approximate date confirmed by the Annals Cambriae.
That concludes the identification of Nennius' battles. With the exception of the ninth battle, wrongly ascribed to Arthur, all the battles are in Scotland and the north of England. This would make sense with an Angle advance in the east, and the threat of the Picts from the north.
There remains just one battle of Arthur to identify - his defeat. The Annales Cambriae record it, in 539 AD, as:
The strife of Camlann in which Arthur and Medraut perished; and there was a plague in Britain and Ireland.
It has been variously identified as on the River Cam, Somerset; the River Camel, Cornwall; Camlann valley in Wales, and Camelon in Stirlingshire. Of these Camelon seems to have the best claim as Arthur, in legend, perished at the hands of the Picts. The Picts were only found in Scotland, certainly not in the south of England or Wales. Stirlingshire would be the boundary of the Mannan and the Pictish kingdoms. David Carroll has an alternative theory that Camlann is at the River Allan, though again placed in Stirlingshire around the Bridge of Allan, as Camlann can be interpreted as the crooked Allan (see the explanation of Nennius' sixth battle of Bassas). This location also fits with a Pictish enemy but he puts the date at 582 AD, generally taken to be outwith the timespan of Arthur. In defence of his date, it can be shown that because of the differences in the calculation of Easter, entries in the Annals can differ by as much as 84 years to the correct date. However, most annal entries of this period are generally found to be accurate within a couple of years either way. Either way, the location of Stirlingshire as Camlann seems accurate.
In conclusion, Arthur fought all his battles in Scotland and the north of England. The battles range from around 508 to 539 AD (given that the Annals are accurate within two years). Only one seems internal (the sixth) and the others battles with the Angles and the Picts. The sixth battle may have in reality been first, as it is an internal conflict, although from Nennius' twelve battles, the last is definitely Badon. This would have made Arthur's reign seem peaceful as the Battle of Badon would have been around twenty years before an old Arthur was finally defeated by Mordred at Camlann.
The geographical location of the battles corroborate the claim of Arthur to be Scottish, and thus based in the British capital of Ail Cluathe (Dumbarton) near Drumchapel. Backing this is new interpretations of the Ancient Welsh poems discussed next.